| ABA Therapy - Information on ABA Therepy - What is ABA? Bright Tots - Information on early childhood development |
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| Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) |
| Aba Therapy |
| ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Copyright © 2004 Bright Tots® Inc. - Educational Toys & Resource Guide to Child Development - All rights reserved. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ |
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Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is based on the idea that by influencing a response associated with a behavior may
cause that behavior to be shaped and controlled. ABA is a mixture of psychological and educational techniques that
are utilized based upon the needs of each individual child. Applied Behavior Analysis is the use of behavioral methods
to measure behavior, teach functional skills, and evaluate progress.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) techniques have been proven in many studies as the leading proven treatment and
method of choice on treating individuals with autism spectrum disorder at any level. ABA approaches such as discrete
trial training (DTT), Pivotal Response Training (PRT), Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), Self-
Management, and a range of social skills training techniques are all critical in teaching children with autism.
Ultimately, the goal is to find a way of motivating the child and using a number of different strategies and positive
reinforcement techniques to ensure that the sessions are enjoyable and productive.
In all ABA programs, the intent is to increase skills in language, play and socialization, while decreasing behaviors that
interfere with learning. The results can be profound. Many children with autism who have ritualistic or self-injurious
behaviors reduce or eliminate these behaviors.
They establish eye contact. They learn to stay on task. Finally the children acquire the ability and the desire to learn
and to do well. Even if the child does not achieve a “best outcome” result of normal functioning levels in all areas,
nearly all autistic children benefit from intensive ABA programs.
History of ABA Therapy
ABA therapy was first developed in the 1960s by psychologist Ivar Lovaas, PhD, at the University of California; Los
Angeles (UCLA), ABA therapy for autism makes use of the idea that when people affected by autism are rewarded
for a behavior, they are likely to repeat that behavior. In ABA treatment, the therapist gives the child a motive, like a
question or a request to sit down, along with the correct response. The therapist uses attention, praise or an actual
incentive like toys or food to reward the child for repeating the right answer or completing the task; any other
response is ignored.
In a landmark 1987 study, Lovaas found that nearly half (47%) of the children who received 40 hours per week of
ABA therapy were eventually able to complete normal first-grade classes and achieved normal intellectual and
educational functioning by the end of first grade. While none of children who received the therapy only 10 hours per
week were able to do the same.
Other researchers have partially replicated Lovaas's success, among them psychologist James Mulick, PhD, of Ohio
State
University, who finds an association between a form of ABA therapy he calls Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention
and improvement in children's IQ scores. Such promising results lead Mulick and other supporters of intensive
behavioral intervention to argue that, despite its expense, it should be available to all autistic children.
ABA Strategies
ABA therapists work with applied behavior analysis techniques in order to teach children with autism through
intensive one-on-one therapy sessions. ABA can help children with any level of autism spectrum disorder. ABA
therapy works on communication, academic, social and behavioral skills or any other deficits that a child might have.
Specific targets of the interventions are chosen based on the child's individual problems and disorder. Children with
autism often exhibit behaviors such as their unwillingness and a reduction in these behaviors is often the first
intervention target. After behavior problems are controlled, the intervention aim can shift to dealing with other aspects
of autism, such as improving communication and social interaction. Goals in an intensive behavioral intervention
program will also change as the child improves or when there is a change in the environment.
Treatment is based heavily on functional assessment, information, and family input. Children work on 25 different
skill areas that include such skill areas as receptive language, expressive communication, visual performance,
mathematics, and other academic and life learning skills. Behavior modification and socialization skills are
incorporated into a child's program if and when necessary. Therapists use reinforcement and other behavior
modification techniques during the sessions to slowly shape a child's behavior. The same principles are also used to
reduce negative behavior.
Basic principles of behavioral and educational intervention approaches
Behavioral therapies include specific approaches to help individuals acquire or change behaviors. All behavioral
therapies are based upon some common concepts about how humans learn behaviors. At the most basic level,
operant conditioning involves presenting a stimulus (request) to a child, and then providing a consequence (a
"reinforce" or a "punisher") based on the child's response.
• A reinforce is anything that, when presented as a consequence of a response, increases the probability or
frequency of that response. Examples of possible reinforcers for young children may include verbal praise, or
offering the child a desired toy.
• A punisher is a consequence that decreases the probability or frequency of that response. Possible punishers
for young children may include verbal disapproval or withholding a desired object or activity. The term "punisher" is a
technical term used in behavioral therapy and does not imply the use of physical abuse such as hitting, slapping,
spanking, or pinching.
Reinforcers and punishers are different for each child. Part of operant conditioning approaches is to perform a
functional assessment of possible reinforcers or punishers to determine which are most effective in shaping a child's
behaviors. While all behavioral therapies have some basic similarities, specific behavioral techniques vary in several
ways. Some techniques focus on the prior conditions and involve procedures provided before a target behavior
occurs.
Other techniques focus on the consequence of a behavior and involve procedures implemented following a behavior.
Still other techniques involve skill development and procedures teaching alternative, more adaptive behaviors. Many
different specific behavioral and educational techniques have been used as part of interventions for individual children
with autism. These techniques are effective in a wide body of research based on a common set of behavioral and
learning principles. Behavioral interventions involve the therapist controlling the activity and/or consequences to shape
the child's responses.
ABA Therapy Approaches
A default in social motivation is a characteristic in autism. Children with autism typically lack the motivation to learn
new tasks and participate in their social environment. Some traits you may observe when placed in social situations
are temper tantrums, crying, noncompliance, inattention, fidgeting, staring, attempting to leave, or unwillingness. The
use of ABA therapy can increase the desire in children with autism, therefore, significantly enhancing the
effectiveness of the teaching environment.
Discrete Trial Training
Discrete trial training consists of a series of distinct repeated lessons or trials taught one-to-one. Each trial consists of
a prior, a “directive” or request for the individual to perform an action; a behavior, or “response” from the person;
and a consequence, a “reaction” from the therapist based upon the response of the person. Positive reinforcers are
selected by evaluating the individual’s preferences.
Many people initially respond to recognizable or concrete reinforcers such as food items. These concrete rewards are
faded as fast as possible and replaced with rewards such as praise, tickles, and hugs. Early intensive behavioral
intervention such as the Lovaas program is usually implemented when the person is young, before the age of six.
Services are highly intensive, typically 30- 40 hours per week, and conducted on a one-to-one basis by a trained
therapist in the family’s home.
Parent training is a necessary part of an effective Lovaas-based program. The person’s progress is closely monitored
by the collection of data on the performance of each trial. After a skill has been mastered, another skill is introduced,
and the mastered skill is placed on a maintenance schedule. A maintenance schedule allows for periodic checking so
the person does not regress in mastered skills. Discrete trial training is a technique that can be an important element
of a comprehensive educational program for the individual with an autism spectrum disorder. In some cases, a much
less intensive, informal approach of discrete trial training may be provided by a knowledgeable professional to teach
specific skills such as sitting and attending.
Pivotal Response Therapy
Pivotal response therapy (PRT), also referred to as pivotal response treatment or pivotal response training, is a
behavioral intervention therapy for autism. Pivotal response therapy advocates believe that behavior connects
primarily on two 'pivotal' behavioral skills, motivation and the ability to respond to multiple cues, and that
development of these skills will result in overall behavioral improvements.
Initially attempts to treat autism were mostly unsuccessful, and in the 1960s researchers began to focus on behavioral
intervention therapies. Lynn and Robert Koegel theorized that, if effort was focused on certain pivotal responses,
intervention would be more successful and efficient. As they saw it, developing these pivotal behaviors will result in
widespread improvement in other areas. Pivotal Response Theory (PRT) is based on a belief that autism is a much
less severe disorder than originally thought.
The two primary pivotal areas of pivotal response therapy involve motivation and initiation of activities. Three others
are self-management, feelings and the ability to respond to multiple signals, or cues. Play environments are used to
teach pivotal skills, such as turn-taking, communication, and language. This training is child-directed: the child makes
choices that direct the therapy. Emphasis is also placed upon the role of parents as primary intervention agents.
The effectiveness of pivotal response therapies has yet been proven, but ongoing research of its effects on autistic
children is being conducted. Pivotal response training is specifically designed to increase a child’s motivation to
participate in learning new skills. Pivotal response training involves specific strategies such as
• clear instructions and questions presented by the therapist
• child choice of stimuli (based on choices offered by the therapist)
• intervals of maintenance tasks (previously mastered tasks)
• direct reinforcement (the chosen stimuli is the reinforce)
• reinforcement of reason for purposeful attempts at correct respond
• Turn taking to allow modeling and appropriate pace of interaction
Pivotal response training has proven to be a naturalistic training method that is structured enough to help children
learn simple through complex play skills, while still flexible enough to allow children to remain creative in their play.
The child can be reinforced for single or multiple step play. The therapist has the opportunity to model more complex
play and provide new play ideas on his/her turn. Research indicates that children with autism who are
developmentally ready to learn symbolic play skills can learn to engage in spontaneous, creative play with another
adult at levels similar to those of language-age matched peers via pivotal response training .
Reciprocal imitation training
A variation on the pivotal response training procedure for teaching play skills is reciprocal imitation training (RIT).
Reciprocal imitation training was developed to teach spontaneous imitation skills to young children with autism in a
play environment; however, this intervention technique has also been shown to increase pretend play actions.
Reciprocal imitation training is designed to encourage mutual or reciprocal imitation of play actions between a
therapist and child.
This procedure includes unexpected simulation in which the therapist imitates actions and vocalizations of the child. A
study found that very young children with autism learned imitative pretend play with an adult using this procedure
and this play generalized to new settings, therapists, and materials. Several of the children also increased their
spontaneous use of pretend play. In addition, the children exhibited increases in social behaviors such as coordinated
attention after reciprocal imitation training, suggesting that both the imitative and the spontaneous play had taken on a
social quality.
Self-management training
Self-management has been developed as an additional option for teaching children with autism to increase
independence and generalization without increased reliance on a teacher or parent. Self-management typically involves
some or all of the following components: self-evaluation of performance, self-monitoring, and self-delivery of
reinforcement. Ideally, it includes teaching the child to monitor his/her own behavior in the absence of an adult.
This therapy uses a self-management treatment package to train school-age children with autism to engage in
increased levels of appropriate play. In a study children displayed very little independent appropriate play before
training, and typically engaged in inappropriate or self-stimulatory behavior when left on their own. With the
introduction of the self-management training package, the children increased their appropriate play in both supervised
and unsupervised settings, and across generalization settings and toys. Decreases in self-stimulatory and disruptive
behaviors were maintained in the unsupervised environments.
The study shows preschool-age students using self-management training learned new activities using favorite toys
that typically required assisted play. Children were prompted to engage in new behaviors with the toys, and were
asked to take a token whenever they displayed a variation in the target behavior. All the children exhibited increases in
variability of play after self-management training, with the behavior maintaining at a 1 month follow-up. Self-
monitoring procedures have also been used to increase social initiations while reducing disruptive behavior and to
increase independent interactions with typical peers.
Video modeling
Video modeling, like in vivo modeling, uses predictable and repeated presentations of target behaviors; however, these
behaviors are presented in video format, thus reducing variations in model performance. Video modeling has been
shown to improve various skills in individuals with autism, including conversational speech: verbal responding,
helping behaviors, and purchasing skills. This medium has also been claimed to increase vocabulary, emotional
understanding, attribute acquisition, and daily living skills.
Video modeling interventions have used both self-as-model and other-as-model methods. In the first performance,
individuals act as their own models, and the video is edited so that only desired behaviors are shown. The second and
perhaps more essential method of video modeling employs taping other individuals, typically adults or siblings,
performing target behaviors.
Video self modeling has been theorized to be more effective than traditional video modeling because it may promote
increased attention from the individual, although factual studies have not substantiated this claim. Applications of
video modeling as an intervention technique are now being extended to teaching and increasing play in children with
autism.
cause that behavior to be shaped and controlled. ABA is a mixture of psychological and educational techniques that
are utilized based upon the needs of each individual child. Applied Behavior Analysis is the use of behavioral methods
to measure behavior, teach functional skills, and evaluate progress.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) techniques have been proven in many studies as the leading proven treatment and
method of choice on treating individuals with autism spectrum disorder at any level. ABA approaches such as discrete
trial training (DTT), Pivotal Response Training (PRT), Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), Self-
Management, and a range of social skills training techniques are all critical in teaching children with autism.
Ultimately, the goal is to find a way of motivating the child and using a number of different strategies and positive
reinforcement techniques to ensure that the sessions are enjoyable and productive.
In all ABA programs, the intent is to increase skills in language, play and socialization, while decreasing behaviors that
interfere with learning. The results can be profound. Many children with autism who have ritualistic or self-injurious
behaviors reduce or eliminate these behaviors.
They establish eye contact. They learn to stay on task. Finally the children acquire the ability and the desire to learn
and to do well. Even if the child does not achieve a “best outcome” result of normal functioning levels in all areas,
nearly all autistic children benefit from intensive ABA programs.
History of ABA Therapy
ABA therapy was first developed in the 1960s by psychologist Ivar Lovaas, PhD, at the University of California; Los
Angeles (UCLA), ABA therapy for autism makes use of the idea that when people affected by autism are rewarded
for a behavior, they are likely to repeat that behavior. In ABA treatment, the therapist gives the child a motive, like a
question or a request to sit down, along with the correct response. The therapist uses attention, praise or an actual
incentive like toys or food to reward the child for repeating the right answer or completing the task; any other
response is ignored.
In a landmark 1987 study, Lovaas found that nearly half (47%) of the children who received 40 hours per week of
ABA therapy were eventually able to complete normal first-grade classes and achieved normal intellectual and
educational functioning by the end of first grade. While none of children who received the therapy only 10 hours per
week were able to do the same.
Other researchers have partially replicated Lovaas's success, among them psychologist James Mulick, PhD, of Ohio
State
University, who finds an association between a form of ABA therapy he calls Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention
and improvement in children's IQ scores. Such promising results lead Mulick and other supporters of intensive
behavioral intervention to argue that, despite its expense, it should be available to all autistic children.
ABA Strategies
ABA therapists work with applied behavior analysis techniques in order to teach children with autism through
intensive one-on-one therapy sessions. ABA can help children with any level of autism spectrum disorder. ABA
therapy works on communication, academic, social and behavioral skills or any other deficits that a child might have.
Specific targets of the interventions are chosen based on the child's individual problems and disorder. Children with
autism often exhibit behaviors such as their unwillingness and a reduction in these behaviors is often the first
intervention target. After behavior problems are controlled, the intervention aim can shift to dealing with other aspects
of autism, such as improving communication and social interaction. Goals in an intensive behavioral intervention
program will also change as the child improves or when there is a change in the environment.
Treatment is based heavily on functional assessment, information, and family input. Children work on 25 different
skill areas that include such skill areas as receptive language, expressive communication, visual performance,
mathematics, and other academic and life learning skills. Behavior modification and socialization skills are
incorporated into a child's program if and when necessary. Therapists use reinforcement and other behavior
modification techniques during the sessions to slowly shape a child's behavior. The same principles are also used to
reduce negative behavior.
Basic principles of behavioral and educational intervention approaches
Behavioral therapies include specific approaches to help individuals acquire or change behaviors. All behavioral
therapies are based upon some common concepts about how humans learn behaviors. At the most basic level,
operant conditioning involves presenting a stimulus (request) to a child, and then providing a consequence (a
"reinforce" or a "punisher") based on the child's response.
• A reinforce is anything that, when presented as a consequence of a response, increases the probability or
frequency of that response. Examples of possible reinforcers for young children may include verbal praise, or
offering the child a desired toy.
• A punisher is a consequence that decreases the probability or frequency of that response. Possible punishers
for young children may include verbal disapproval or withholding a desired object or activity. The term "punisher" is a
technical term used in behavioral therapy and does not imply the use of physical abuse such as hitting, slapping,
spanking, or pinching.
Reinforcers and punishers are different for each child. Part of operant conditioning approaches is to perform a
functional assessment of possible reinforcers or punishers to determine which are most effective in shaping a child's
behaviors. While all behavioral therapies have some basic similarities, specific behavioral techniques vary in several
ways. Some techniques focus on the prior conditions and involve procedures provided before a target behavior
occurs.
Other techniques focus on the consequence of a behavior and involve procedures implemented following a behavior.
Still other techniques involve skill development and procedures teaching alternative, more adaptive behaviors. Many
different specific behavioral and educational techniques have been used as part of interventions for individual children
with autism. These techniques are effective in a wide body of research based on a common set of behavioral and
learning principles. Behavioral interventions involve the therapist controlling the activity and/or consequences to shape
the child's responses.
ABA Therapy Approaches
A default in social motivation is a characteristic in autism. Children with autism typically lack the motivation to learn
new tasks and participate in their social environment. Some traits you may observe when placed in social situations
are temper tantrums, crying, noncompliance, inattention, fidgeting, staring, attempting to leave, or unwillingness. The
use of ABA therapy can increase the desire in children with autism, therefore, significantly enhancing the
effectiveness of the teaching environment.
Discrete Trial Training
Discrete trial training consists of a series of distinct repeated lessons or trials taught one-to-one. Each trial consists of
a prior, a “directive” or request for the individual to perform an action; a behavior, or “response” from the person;
and a consequence, a “reaction” from the therapist based upon the response of the person. Positive reinforcers are
selected by evaluating the individual’s preferences.
Many people initially respond to recognizable or concrete reinforcers such as food items. These concrete rewards are
faded as fast as possible and replaced with rewards such as praise, tickles, and hugs. Early intensive behavioral
intervention such as the Lovaas program is usually implemented when the person is young, before the age of six.
Services are highly intensive, typically 30- 40 hours per week, and conducted on a one-to-one basis by a trained
therapist in the family’s home.
Parent training is a necessary part of an effective Lovaas-based program. The person’s progress is closely monitored
by the collection of data on the performance of each trial. After a skill has been mastered, another skill is introduced,
and the mastered skill is placed on a maintenance schedule. A maintenance schedule allows for periodic checking so
the person does not regress in mastered skills. Discrete trial training is a technique that can be an important element
of a comprehensive educational program for the individual with an autism spectrum disorder. In some cases, a much
less intensive, informal approach of discrete trial training may be provided by a knowledgeable professional to teach
specific skills such as sitting and attending.
Pivotal Response Therapy
Pivotal response therapy (PRT), also referred to as pivotal response treatment or pivotal response training, is a
behavioral intervention therapy for autism. Pivotal response therapy advocates believe that behavior connects
primarily on two 'pivotal' behavioral skills, motivation and the ability to respond to multiple cues, and that
development of these skills will result in overall behavioral improvements.
Initially attempts to treat autism were mostly unsuccessful, and in the 1960s researchers began to focus on behavioral
intervention therapies. Lynn and Robert Koegel theorized that, if effort was focused on certain pivotal responses,
intervention would be more successful and efficient. As they saw it, developing these pivotal behaviors will result in
widespread improvement in other areas. Pivotal Response Theory (PRT) is based on a belief that autism is a much
less severe disorder than originally thought.
The two primary pivotal areas of pivotal response therapy involve motivation and initiation of activities. Three others
are self-management, feelings and the ability to respond to multiple signals, or cues. Play environments are used to
teach pivotal skills, such as turn-taking, communication, and language. This training is child-directed: the child makes
choices that direct the therapy. Emphasis is also placed upon the role of parents as primary intervention agents.
The effectiveness of pivotal response therapies has yet been proven, but ongoing research of its effects on autistic
children is being conducted. Pivotal response training is specifically designed to increase a child’s motivation to
participate in learning new skills. Pivotal response training involves specific strategies such as
• clear instructions and questions presented by the therapist
• child choice of stimuli (based on choices offered by the therapist)
• intervals of maintenance tasks (previously mastered tasks)
• direct reinforcement (the chosen stimuli is the reinforce)
• reinforcement of reason for purposeful attempts at correct respond
• Turn taking to allow modeling and appropriate pace of interaction
Pivotal response training has proven to be a naturalistic training method that is structured enough to help children
learn simple through complex play skills, while still flexible enough to allow children to remain creative in their play.
The child can be reinforced for single or multiple step play. The therapist has the opportunity to model more complex
play and provide new play ideas on his/her turn. Research indicates that children with autism who are
developmentally ready to learn symbolic play skills can learn to engage in spontaneous, creative play with another
adult at levels similar to those of language-age matched peers via pivotal response training .
Reciprocal imitation training
A variation on the pivotal response training procedure for teaching play skills is reciprocal imitation training (RIT).
Reciprocal imitation training was developed to teach spontaneous imitation skills to young children with autism in a
play environment; however, this intervention technique has also been shown to increase pretend play actions.
Reciprocal imitation training is designed to encourage mutual or reciprocal imitation of play actions between a
therapist and child.
This procedure includes unexpected simulation in which the therapist imitates actions and vocalizations of the child. A
study found that very young children with autism learned imitative pretend play with an adult using this procedure
and this play generalized to new settings, therapists, and materials. Several of the children also increased their
spontaneous use of pretend play. In addition, the children exhibited increases in social behaviors such as coordinated
attention after reciprocal imitation training, suggesting that both the imitative and the spontaneous play had taken on a
social quality.
Self-management training
Self-management has been developed as an additional option for teaching children with autism to increase
independence and generalization without increased reliance on a teacher or parent. Self-management typically involves
some or all of the following components: self-evaluation of performance, self-monitoring, and self-delivery of
reinforcement. Ideally, it includes teaching the child to monitor his/her own behavior in the absence of an adult.
This therapy uses a self-management treatment package to train school-age children with autism to engage in
increased levels of appropriate play. In a study children displayed very little independent appropriate play before
training, and typically engaged in inappropriate or self-stimulatory behavior when left on their own. With the
introduction of the self-management training package, the children increased their appropriate play in both supervised
and unsupervised settings, and across generalization settings and toys. Decreases in self-stimulatory and disruptive
behaviors were maintained in the unsupervised environments.
The study shows preschool-age students using self-management training learned new activities using favorite toys
that typically required assisted play. Children were prompted to engage in new behaviors with the toys, and were
asked to take a token whenever they displayed a variation in the target behavior. All the children exhibited increases in
variability of play after self-management training, with the behavior maintaining at a 1 month follow-up. Self-
monitoring procedures have also been used to increase social initiations while reducing disruptive behavior and to
increase independent interactions with typical peers.
Video modeling
Video modeling, like in vivo modeling, uses predictable and repeated presentations of target behaviors; however, these
behaviors are presented in video format, thus reducing variations in model performance. Video modeling has been
shown to improve various skills in individuals with autism, including conversational speech: verbal responding,
helping behaviors, and purchasing skills. This medium has also been claimed to increase vocabulary, emotional
understanding, attribute acquisition, and daily living skills.
Video modeling interventions have used both self-as-model and other-as-model methods. In the first performance,
individuals act as their own models, and the video is edited so that only desired behaviors are shown. The second and
perhaps more essential method of video modeling employs taping other individuals, typically adults or siblings,
performing target behaviors.
Video self modeling has been theorized to be more effective than traditional video modeling because it may promote
increased attention from the individual, although factual studies have not substantiated this claim. Applications of
video modeling as an intervention technique are now being extended to teaching and increasing play in children with
autism.
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